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In Which Cultural Period Was That a Flourishing of Art Literature Science Religion and Politics

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TheRenaissance (UK: /rɨˈneɪsəns/,The states: /ˈrɛnɨsɑːns/,French pronunciation: [ʁənɛsɑ̃ːs], Italian: Rinascimento , French: Renaissance , fromri-"again" andnascere "birth")[1] was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Belatedly Middle Ages and later spreading to the residual of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historical era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, information technology encompassed a flowering of literature, scientific discipline, art, religion, and politics, and a resurgence of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. Traditionally, this intellectual transformation has resulted in the Renaissance being viewed as a bridge betwixt the Centre Ages and the Modern era. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, information technology is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths asLeonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance human".[2] [3]

There is a consensus the Renaissance began in Florence, Tuscany in the 14th century.[4] Diverse theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a diverseness of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time; its political structure; the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici;[5] [six] and the migration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople at the hands of the Ottoman Turks.[7] [8] [ix]

The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography, and there has been much fence amid historians as to the usefulness ofRenaissance every bit a term and as a historical delineation.[10] Some accept called into question whether the Renaissance was a cultural "advance" from the Eye Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for the classical historic period,[11] while others have instead focused on the continuity betwixt the two eras.[12] Indeed, some accept called for an end to the apply of the term, which they encounter as a product of presentism– the use of history to validate and glorify modern ideals.[thirteen] The wordRenaissance has likewise been used to describe other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the twelfth century.

  • iOverview
  • 2Origins
    • ii.1Latin and Greek Phases of Renaissance humanism
    • ii.iiSocial and political structures in Italy
    • 2.3Black Decease/Plague
    • 2.4Cultural conditions in Florence
  • 3Characteristics
    • 3.1Humanism
    • 3.2Art
    • 3.3Scientific discipline
    • 3.4Religion
    • 3.5Self-sensation
  • 4Spread
    • 4.oneNorthern Europe
    • four.2Portugal
    • 4.threeCroatia
    • 4.4Spain
    • 4.5England
    • 4.6French republic
    • 4.7Frg
    • 4.8Republic of hungary
    • four.9Netherlands
    • 4.10Poland
    • 4.11Russia
  • 5Historiography
    • 5.oneConception
    • 5.2Debates nigh progress
  • 6Other Renaissances
  • 7Run across also
  • viiiNotes
  • 9References
    • 9.1Primary sources
  • 10External links

[edit] Overview

Renaissance
"The School of Athens" by Raphael
Topics
  • Architecture
  • Dance
  • Literature
  • Music
  • Painting
  • Philosophy
  • Scientific discipline
  • Engineering
  • Warfare
Regions
  • England
  • French republic
  • Frg
  • Italy
  • Netherlands
  • Northern Europe
  • Poland
  • Spain
v·d·e

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence was felt in literature,philosophy, fine art, music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art.[xiv]

Renaissance thinkers sought out in Europe's monastic libraries and the crumbling Byzantine Empire the literary, historical, and oratorical texts of antiquity, typically written in Latin or aboriginal Greek, many of which had fallen into obscurity. It is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that Renaissance scholars differed and so markedly from the medieval scholars of the Renaissance of the twelfth century, who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural sciences, philosophy and mathematics, rather than on such cultural texts. Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the Renaissance'south greatest works were devoted to information technology, and the Churchpatronized many works of Renaissance fine art. Nonetheless, a subtle shift took place in the style that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life.[fifteen] In improver, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Attestation, were brought back from Byzantium to Western Europe and engaged Western scholars for the first fourth dimension since late antiquity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works, and particularly the return to the original Greek of the New Testament promoted past humanists Lorenzo Valla andErasmus, would help pave the way for the Protestant Reformation.

Artists such as Masaccio strove to portray the human class realistically, developing techniques to render perspectiveand light more naturally. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe political life as information technology really was, that is to sympathize it rationally. A disquisitional contribution to Italian Renaissance humanism Pico della Mirandola wrote the famous text"De hominis dignitate" (Oration on the Nobility of Human being, 1486), which consists of a series of theses on philosophy, natural thought, faith and magic defended against whatsoever opponent on the grounds of reason. In addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renaissance authors also began increasingly to usevernacular languages; combined with the introduction of printing, this would allow many more than people access to books, especially the Bible.[xvi]

In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an endeavour by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from artifact, and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars, such as Rodney Stark,[17] play downward the Renaissance in favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city states in the High Middle Ages, which married responsive government, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This assay argues that, whereas the swell European states (French republic and Espana) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent urban center republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set off a vast unprecedented commercial revolution which preceded and financed the Renaissance.

[edit] Origins

Most historians agree that the ideas that characterized the Renaissance had their origin in late 13th century Florence, in item with the writings ofDante Alighieri (1265–1321) and Francesco Petrarca (1304–1374), as well as the painting of Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337).[eighteen] Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; i proposed starting signal is 1401, when the rival geniuses Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi competed for the contract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery of the Florence Cathedral (Ghiberti won).[xix] Others see more general contest between artists and polymaths such every bit Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions equally sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, and why it began when it did. Accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explicate its origins.

During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand. Artists depended totally on patrons while the patrons needed money to sustain geniuses. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia and Europe. Silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of coin. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought dwelling house during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa and Venice.[twenty]

[edit] Latin and Greek Phases of Renaissance humanism

In stark contrast to the High Middle Ages, when Latin scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and mathematics,[21] Renaissance scholars were most interested in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, historical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this began in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renaissance scholars such every bit Petrarch, Coluccio Salutati (1331–1406), Niccolò de' Niccoli(1364–1437) and Poggio Bracciolini (1380–1459 AD) scoured the libraries of Europe in search of works by such Latin authors every bit Cicero, Livy and Seneca.[22] By the early on 15th century, the bulk of such Latin literature had been recovered; the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was now under way, every bit Western European scholars turned to recovering ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts.[23]

Coluccio Salutati.

Dissimilar the case of those Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since belatedly antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, maths and philosophy had been studied since the High Middle Ages in Western Europe and in the medieval Islamic globe (normally in translation), merely Greek literary, oratorical and historical works, (such as Homer, the Greek dramatists, Demosthenes and Thucydides and and then forth), were not studied in either the Latin or medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine scholars. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works dorsum into Western Europe for the showtime time since late antiquity. This movement to reintegrate the regular study of Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological texts dorsum into the Western European curriculum is usually dated to Coluccio Salutati's invitation to the Byzantine diplomat and scholarManuel Chrysoloras (c.1355–1415) to Florence to teach Greek.[24]

[edit] Social and political structures in Italy

A political map of the Italian Peninsulacirca 1494

The unique political structures of late Middle Ages Italian republic have led some to conjecture that its unusual social climate allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. Italy did not exist every bit a political entity in the early modern period. Instead, it was divided into smaller city states and territories: the Kingdom of Naples controlled the southward, the Republic of Florence and the Papal States at the eye, the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and westward respectively, and the Venetians to the east. Fifteenth-century Italy was i of the near urbanised areas in Europe.[25] Many of its cities stood among the ruins of ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classical nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Roman Empire's heartland.[26]

Historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner points out that Otto of Freising (c. 1114–1158), a German bishop visiting due north Italia during the 12th century, noticed a widespread new course of political and social organization, observing that Italian republic appeared to accept exited from Feudalism so that its gild was based on merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti-monarchical thinking, represented in the famous early on Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Bad Regime in Siena by Ambrogio Lorenzetti (painted 1338–1340) whose strong bulletin is about the virtues of fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these metropolis republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner reports that at that place were many defences of liberty such every bit Matteo Palmieri's (1406–1475) commemoration of Florentine genius not just in fine art, sculpture and architecture, but "the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred in Florence at the same fourth dimension".[27]

Fifty-fifty cities and states beyond key Italy, such as the Commonwealth of Florence at this fourth dimension, were also notable for their merchant Republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Although in do these were oligarchical, and bore fiddling resemblance to a modern democracy, they did take democratic features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty.[28] [29] [30] The relative political liberty they afforded was conducive to bookish and artistic advancement.[31] Likewise, the position of Italian cities such every bit Venice as bully trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, especially the Levant. Venice was Europe's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fine drinking glass, while Florence was a uppercase of textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italian republic meant large public and private artistic projects could be deputed and individuals had more leisure time for study.[31]

[edit] Black Death/Plague

One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation caused past the Blackness Expiry in Florence, which hit Europe between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the earth view of people in 14th-century Italy. Italy was particularly badly hit past the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with expiry caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife.[32] Information technology has besides been argued that the Black Expiry prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art.[33] However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italia in the 14th century. The Black Expiry was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not merely Italian republic. The Renaissance'southward emergence in Italy was nigh probable the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.[10]

The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of England, and so about iv.2 million, lost 1.4 meg people to the bubonic plague. Florence'due south population was near halved in the yr 1347. As a event of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more than freedom. To respond the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the virtually favorable position economically.[34]

The demographic refuse due to the plague had some economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30 to xl per centum in well-nigh parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400.[35] Landholders faced a bang-up loss only for ordinary men and women, it was a windfall. The survivors of the plague found not only that the prices of nutrient were cheaper but too establish that lands were more abundant, and that most of them inherited property from their dead relatives.

The Blackness Expiry caused greater upheaval to Florence's social and political construction than later on epidemics. Despite a significant number of deaths among members of the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of elected representatives were suspended during the height of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the metropolis, but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of government.[36]

[edit] Cultural weather condition in Florence

Information technology has long been a matter of fence why the Renaissance began in Florence, and non elsewhere in Italy. Scholars take noted several features unique to Florentine cultural life which may take acquired such a cultural motility. Many accept emphasized the role played by the Medici, a banking family unit and later ducal ruling house, in patronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de' Medici (1449–1492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of arts patronage, encouraging his countryman to commission works from Florence's leading artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, andMichelangelo Buonarroti.[5]

The Renaissance was certainly underway earlier Lorenzo came to ability; indeed, before the Medici family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine order. Some historians have postulated that Florence was the birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.due east. considering "Nifty Men" were born at that place by chance.[37] Da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Arguing that such adventure seems improbable, other historians accept contended that these "Nifty Men" were only able to ascent to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time.[38]

[edit] Characteristics

[edit] Humanism

In some ways Humanism was not a philosophy per se, but rather a method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic manner, which focused on resolving contradictions between authors, humanists would study ancient texts in the original, and appraise them through a combination of reasoning and empirical evidence. Humanist didactics was based on the plan of 'Studia Humanitatis', that beingness the study of 5 humanities: verse, grammer, history, moral philosophy and rhetoric. Although historians have sometimes struggled to ascertain humanism precisely, most accept settled on "a middle of the road definition... the movement to recover, translate, and assimilate the language, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece and Rome".[39] To a higher place all, humanists asserted "the genius of human being ... the unique and boggling ability of the human mind."[40]

Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape throughout the early modern period. Political philosophers such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas More than revived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers, and applied them in critiques of gimmicky government. Pico della Mirandola wrote what is often considered themanifesto of the Renaissance, a vibrant defence of thinking, the Oration on the Nobility of Human. Matteo Palmieri (1406–1475), some other humanist, is most known for his piece of workDella vita civile ("On Borough Life"; printed 1528) which advocatedcivic humanism, and his influence in refining the Tuscan vernacular to the same level every bit Latin. Palmieri's written works drawn on Roman philosophers and theorists, particularly Cicero, who, like Palmieri, lived an agile public life as a denizen and official, as well as a theorist and philosopher and also Quintilian. Perhaps the nearly succinct expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic workLa città di vita, merely an earlier piece of workDella vita civile (On Civic Life) is more wide-ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set up in a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on the qualities of the platonic denizen. The dialogues include ideas about how children develop mentally and physically, how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can ensure probity in public life, and an important debate on the difference between that which is pragmatically useful and that which is honest.

The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body. This transcending belief can be done with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal homo whose person combined intellectual and concrete excellence and who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any state of affairs.[41] This credo was referred to as il uomo universal, an ancient Greco-Roman ideal. The didactics during Renaissance was mainly composed of ancient literature and history. It was thought that the classics provided moral educational activity and an intensive understanding of human beliefs.

[edit] Art

The Renaissance marks the menstruation of European history at the close of the Middle Ages and the rise of the Modern world. It represents a cultural rebirth from the 14th through the middle of the 17th centuries. Early Renaissance, mostly in Italy, bridges the fine art period during the fifteenth century, between the Middle Ages and the Loftier Renaissance in Italy. Information technology is generally known that Renaissance matured in Northern Europe after, in 16th century.[42] One of the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its development of highly realistic linear perspective. Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337) is credited with start treating a painting as a window into space, only information technology was non until the demonstrations of architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446) and the subsequent writings of Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) that perspective was formalized as an artistic technique.[43] The development of perspective was office of a wider tendency towards realism in the arts.[44] To that end, painters as well developed other techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the example of Leonardo da Vinci, man anatomy. Underlying these changes in artistic method, was a renewed desire to depict the dazzler of nature, and to unravel the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles that were to be much imitated by other artists.[45] Other notable artists include Sandro Botticelli, working for the Medici in Florence, Donatello some other Florentine and Titian in Venice, amidst others.

Concurrently, in the Netherlands, a particularly vibrant artistic culture developed, the work of Hugo van der Goes and Jan van Eyck having particular influence on the development of painting in Italy, both technically with the introduction of oil paint and canvas, and stylistically in terms of naturalism in representation. (For more, seeRenaissance in the Netherlands). Later, the work of Pieter Brueghel the Elderberry would inspire artists to depict themes of everyday life.[46]

In architecture, Filippo Brunelleschi was foremost in studying the remains of ancient classical buildings, and with rediscovered knowledge from the 1st-century writer Vitruvius and the flourishing subject of mathematics, formulated the Renaissance fashion which emulated and improved on classical forms. Brunelleschi's major feat of technology was the building of the dome of Florence Cathedral.[47] The first building to demonstrate this is claimed to be the church of St. Andrew built past Alberti in Mantua. The outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, combining the skills of Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sangallo and Maderno.

The Roman orders types of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Blended. These can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, ready against a wall in the class of pilasters. During the Renaissance, architects aimed to utilise columns, pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated arrangement. One of the outset buildings to use pilasters equally an integrated organisation was in the Old Sacristy (1421–1440) past Filippo Brunelleschi.[48]

Arches, semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental, are oft used in arcades, supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between the majuscule and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to apply the curvation on a monumental. Renaissance vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-round or segmental and on a foursquare program, unlike the Gothic vault which is ofttimes rectangular.

The Renaissance artists were not pagans although they admired antiquity and they too kept some ideas and symbols of the medieval past. Nicola Pisano (c. 1220-c. 1278) imitated classical forms by portraying scenes from the Bible. The Anunciation by Nicola Pisano, from the Baptistry at Pisa, demonstrates that classical models influenced Italian art before the Renaissance took root as a literary motion[49]

[edit] Science

The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention of printing democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of ideas. Only the first period of Italian Renaissance is oft seen equally one of scientific backwardness: humanists favoured the study of humanities overnatural philosophy or applied mathematics. And their reverence for classical sources further enshrined the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe.

Even though, around 1450, the writings of Nicholas Cusanus were anticipating Copernicus' heliocentric world-view, it was made in a non-scientific fashion. Science and art were very much intermingled in the early Renaissance, with polymath artists such every bit Leonardo da Vinci making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. He set controlled experiments in water menstruation, medical dissection, and systematic study of motility and aerodynamics; he devised principles of research method that led to Fritjof Capra classifying him as "begetter of modern scientific discipline".[50]

In 1492 the discovery of the "New World" by Christopher Columbus challenged the classical world-view, equally the works of Ptolemy (geography) and Galen(medicine) were plant non always to match everyday observations: a suitable environment was created to question scientific doctrine. As the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation clashed, the Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine).[51] The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements.

Some have seen this every bit a "scientific revolution", heralding the first of the modern age.[52] Others as an acceleration of a continuous process stretching from the aboriginal world to the nowadays 24-hour interval.[53] Regardless, there is general understanding that the Renaissance saw significant changes in the way the universe was viewed and the methods sought to explain natural phenomena.[54] Traditionally held to have begun in 1543, when were first printed the booksDe humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) past Andreas Vesalius, which gave a new confidence to the role ofdissection, observation, and mechanistic view of anatomy.,[54] and as wellDe Revolutionibus, by the Nicolaus Copernicus. The revolutionary thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved effectually the Lord's day. Significant scientific advances were fabricated during this time by Galileo Galilei, Tycho Braheand Johannes Kepler.[55]

Peradventure the nearly significant evolution of the era was not a specific discovery, but rather aprocess for discovery, the scientific method.[54] This revolutionary new way of learning about the earth focused on empirical evidence, the importance of mathematics, and discarded the Aristotelian "terminal crusade" in favor of a mechanical philosophy. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus and Galileo and Francis Bacon[56] [57]The new scientific method led to neat contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy.

[edit] Religion

The new ideals of humanism, although more than secular in some aspects, developed against a Christianbackdrop, especially in the Northern Renaissance. Indeed, much (if non most) of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church.[15] However, the Renaissance had a profound effect on contemporary theology, particularly in the way people perceived the relationship betwixt man and God.[15] Many of the flow'south foremost theologians were followers of the humanist method, includingErasmus, Zwingli, Thomas More, Martin Luther, and John Calvin.

The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The late Middle Ages saw a period of political intrigue surrounding the Papacy, culminating in the Western Schism, in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true Bishop of Rome.[58] While the schism was resolved past theCouncil of Constance (1414), the 15th century saw a resulting reform motion known asConciliarism, which sought to limit the pope's power. Although the papacy somewhen emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by continued accusations of abuse, most famously in the person of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously of simony, nepotism and fathering four illegitimate children whilst Pope, whom he married off to gain more power.[59]

Churchmen such every bit Erasmus and Luther proposed reform to the Church, often based on humanisttextual criticism of the New Testament.[15] Indeed, it was Luther who in Oct 1517 published the95 Theses, challenging papal authorization and criticizing its perceived abuse, particularly with regard to its sale of indulgences. The 95 Theses led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Europe. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a straight role in sparking the Reformation, every bit well as in many other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts.

In an era post-obit the sack of Rome in 1527 and prevalent with uncertainties in the Catholic Church following the Protestant Reformation, Pope Paul Three came to the papal throne (1534–1549), to whom Nicolaus Copernicus dedicatedDe revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Angelic Spheres) and who became the grandfather of Alessandro Farnese (primal), who had paintings by Titian, Michelangelo, and Raphael, and an important collection of drawings and who commissioned the masterpiece of Giulio Clovio, arguably the last major illuminated manuscript, theFarnese Hours.

[edit] Self-sensation

By the 15th century, writers, artists and architects in Italy were well enlightened of the transformations that were taking identify and were using phrases similarmodi antichi (in the antique style) oralle romana et alla antica (in the style of the Romans and the ancients) to describe their piece of work. In the 1330s Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times every bitantiqua (ancient) and to the Christian menstruum asnova (new).[60] From Petrarch's Italian perspective, this new menses (which included his own time) was an age of national eclipse.[sixty] Leonardo Bruni was the offset to use tripartite periodization in hisHistory of the Florentine People (1442).[61] Bruni'due south first two periods were based on those of Petrarch, but he added a third period because he believed that Italy was no longer in a state of decline. Flavio Biondo used a like framework inDecades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire (1439–1453).

Humanist historians argued that gimmicky scholarship restored direct links to the classical period, thus bypassing the Medieval catamenia, which they and then named for the first time the "Middle Ages". The term first appears in Latin in 1469 equallymedia tempestas (middle times).[62] The termla rinascita (rebirth) first appeared, however, in its wide sense in Giorgio Vasari'sVite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani (The Lives of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568).[63] [64] Vasari divides the age into three phases: the first phase contains Cimabue,Giotto, and Arnolfo di Cambio; the second stage contains Masaccio, Brunelleschi, and Donatello; the tertiary centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates with Michelangelo. It was not just the growing sensation of classical antiquity that drove this development, co-ordinate to Vasari, but too the growing desire to study and imitate nature.[65]

[edit] Spread

In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread with great speed from its birthplace in Florence, first to the rest of Italy, and before long to the rest of Europe. The invention of the printing pressallowed the rapid transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance into regional and national movements.

[edit] Northern Europe

The Renaissance as information technology occurred in Northern Europe has been termed the "Northern Renaissance". While Renaissance ideas were moving due north from Italy, at that place was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of innovation, peculiarly in music.[66] The music of the 15th century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renaissance in that art and thepolyphony of the Netherlanders, as information technology moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of what was the starting time true international style in music since the standardization ofGregorian Dirge in the ninth century.[66] The culmination of the Netherlandish school was in the music of the Italian composer, Palestrina. At the end of the 16th century Italy again became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian Schoolhouse, which spread northward into Germany around 1600.

The paintings of the Italian Renaissance differed from those of the Northern Renaissance. Italian Renaissance artists were among the showtime to paint secular scenes, breaking away from the purely religious fine art of medieval painters. At beginning, Northern Renaissance artists remained focused on religious subjects, such as the contemporary religious upheaval portrayed by Albrecht Dürer. Subsequently, the works of Pieter Bruegel influenced artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical themes. Information technology was also during the Northern Renaissance thatFlemish brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck perfected the oil painting technique, which enabled artists to produce potent colors on a hard surface that could survive for centuries.[67] A characteristic of the Northern Renaissance was its employ of the vernacular in place of Latin or Greek, which allowed greater freedom of expression. This movement had started in Italy with the decisive influence of Dante Alighieri on the evolution of vernacular languages; in fact the focus on writing in Italian has neglected a major source of Florentine ideas expressed in Latin.[68] The spread of the applied science of the German invention of movable type printing boosted the Renaissance, in Northern Europe equally elsewhere; with Venice condign a world center of printing.

[edit] Portugal

Although Italian Renaissance had a modest touch on in Portuguese arts, Portugal was influential in broadening the European worldview,[69] stimulating humanist inquiry.

Renaissance arrived through the influence of wealthy Italian and Flemish merchants who invested in the profitable commerce overseas. Every bit the pioneer headquarters of European exploration, Lisbon flourished in the late 15th century, attracting experts who made several breakthroughs in mathematics, astronomy and naval technology including Pedro Nunes, João de Castro, Abraham Zacuto and Martin Behaim. Cartographers Pedro Reinel, Lopo Homem,Esteban Gómez and Diogo Ribeiro made crucial advances to assist mapping the world. Apothecary Tomé Pires and physicians Garcia de Orta and Cristóbal Acosta collected and published works on plants and medicines, soon translated by Flemish pioneer botanist Carolus Clusius.

In architecture, the huge profits of the spice merchandise financed a sumptuous composite fashion in the first decades of the 16th century, the Manueline, incorporating maritime elements.[70] The chief painters being Nuno Gonçalves, Gregório Lopes and Vasco Fernandes. In music, Pedro de Escobar andDuarte Lobo, and four songbooks, including the Cancioneiro de Elvas. In literature, Sá de Miranda introduced Italian forms of poesy, Bernardim Ribeirodeveloped pastoral romance; Gil Vicente plays fused it with pop civilisation, reporting the changing times, and Luís de Camões inscribed the Portuguese feats overseas in the epic poem the Lusiads. Travel literature specially flourished: João de Barros, Castanheda, António Galvão, Gaspar Correia, Duarte Barbosa, Fernão Mendes Pinto, amid others, described new lands and were translated and spread with the new printing press.[69] Later on joining the Portuguese exploration of Brazil in 1500, Amerigo Vespucci coined the term New Globe,[70] in his messages to Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici.

The intense international commutation produced several cosmopolitan humanist scholars: Francisco de Holanda, André de Resende and Damião de Gois, a friend of Erasmus who wrote with rare independence on the reign of King Manuel I; Diogo and André de Gouveia, who fabricated relevant educational activity reforms via France. Foreign news and products in the Portuguese factory in Antwerp attracted the interest of Thomas More than[71] and Durer to the wider globe.[72] In that location, profits and know-how helped nurture the Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age, particularly after the inflow of the wealthy cultured Jewish community expelled from Portugal.

[edit] Croatia

[edit] Spain

The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through the Mediterranean possessions of the Aragonese Crown and the metropolis of Valencia. Indeed, many of the early Spanish Renaissance writers come from the Kingdom of Aragon, including Ausiàs March and Joanot Martorell. In the Kingdom of Castile, the early Renaissance was heavily influenced past the Italian humanism, starting with writers and poets starting with the Marquis of Santillana, who introduced the new Italian verse to Kingdom of spain in the early on 15th century. Other writers, such asJorge Manrique, Fernando de Rojas, Juan del Encina, Juan Boscán Almogáver and Garcilaso de la Vega, kept a close resemblance to the Italian canon. Miguel de Cervantes'smasterpiece Don Quixote is credited equally the first Western novel. Renaissance humanism flourished in the early on 16th century, with influential writers such as philosopher Juan Luis Vives, grammarian Antonio de Nebrija or natural historian Pedro de Mexía.

Subsequently Spanish Renaissance tended towards religious themes and mysticism, with poets such as fray Luis de León, Teresa of Ávila and John of the Cross, and treated problems related to the exploration of the New Globe, with chroniclers and writers such every bit Inca Garcilaso de la Vega or Bartolomé de las Casas, giving rise to a body of work, now known equally Spanish Renaissance literature. The tardily Renaissance in Spain also saw the ascent of artists such as El Greco, and composers such as Tomás Luis de Victoria and Antonio de Cabezón.

[edit] England

"What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how space in faculties, in form and moving how express and admirable, in action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god!" — from William Shakespeare'sHamlet.

In England, the Elizabethan era marked the beginning of the English language Renaissance with the piece of work of writers William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe,Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More, Francis Bacon, Sir Philip Sidney, John Milton, as well as great artists, architects (such as Inigo Jones who introduced Italianate compages to England), and composers such as Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, and William Byrd.

[edit] France

In 1495 the Italian Renaissance arrived in France, imported by King Charles Eight after his invasion of Italy. A factor that promoted the spread of secularism was the Church's inability to offering assistance against the Blackness Decease. Francis I imported Italian fine art and artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, and congenital ornate palaces at great expense. Writers such as François Rabelais, Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Michel de Montaigne, painters such as Jean Clouet and musicians such as Jean Mouton also borrowed from the spirit of the Italian Renaissance.

In 1533, a fourteen-yr old Caterina de' Medici, (1519–1589) born in Florence to Lorenzo Two de' Medici and Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne marriedHenry, second son of King Francis I and Queen Claude. Though she became famous and infamous for her part in France's religious wars, she made a directly contribution in bringing arts, sciences and music (including the origins of ballet) to the French court from her native Florence.

[edit] Frg

In the 2nd half of the 15th century, the spirit of the historic period spread to Germany and the Low Countries, where the development of the printing printing (ca. 1450) and early Renaissance artists like the painters Jan van Eyck (1395–1441) and Hieronymus Bosch (1450–1516) and the composers Johannes Ockeghem (1410–1497), Jacob Obrecht (1457–1505) and Josquin des Prez (1455–1521), predated the influence from Italy. In the early on Protestant areas of the land humanism became closely linked to the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, and the art and writing of the German Renaissance frequently reflected this dispute.[73]However, the gothic style and medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively until the turn of the 16th century. Emperor Maximilian I of Habsburg (Ruling:1493–1519) was the first truly Renaissance monarch of the Holy Roman Empire, subsequently known every bit "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" (Diet of Cologne 1512).

[edit] Hungary

The Renaissance style came directly from Italian republic during the Quattrocento to Hungary first in the Primal European region, thanks to the evolution of early on Hungarian-Italian relationships – not only in dynastic connections, but likewise in cultural, humanistic and commercial relations – growing in strength from the 14th century. Italian architectural influence became stronger in the reign of Zsigmond thanks to the church foundations of the Florentine Scolaries and the castle constructions of Pipo of Ozora. The human relationship between Hungarian and Italian Gothic styles was a 2nd reason – exaggerated quantum of walls is avoided, preferring clean and light structures. The new Italian tendency combined with existing national traditions to create a particular local Renaissance art. Acceptance of Renaissance art was furthered by the continuous inflow of humanist thought in the country. Many immature Hungarians studying at Italian universities came closer to the Florentine humanist center, and then a direct connectedness with Florence evolved. The growing number of Italian traders moving to Hungary, specially to Buda, helped this process. New thoughts were carried by the humanist prelates, among them Vitéz János, archbishop of Esztergom, one of the founders of Hungarian humanism.[74] During the long reign of emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg the Royal Castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. Rex Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458–1490) rebuilt the palace in early Renaissance fashion and further explanded it.[75] [76] Afterward the marriage in 1476 of king Matthias to Beatrice of Naples, Buda became ane of the most important creative centres of the Renaissance north of the Alps.[77] The nigh important humanists living in Matthias' court were Antonio Bonfini and the famous Hungarian poet Janus Pannonius.[77]András Hess gear up a printing press in Buda in 1472. Matthias Corvinus's library, theBibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe's greatest collections of secular books: historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century. His library was second simply in size to the Vatican Library. (However, the Vatican Library mainly contained Bibles and religious materials.)[78] In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote that Lorenzo de Medici founded his own Greek-Latin library encouraged by the case of the Hungarian king. Corvinus's library is role of UNESCO World Heritage.[79] Other of import figures of Hungarian Renaissance: Bálint Balassi (poet), Sebestyén Tinódi Lantos (poet), Bálint Bakfark (composer and lutenist)

[edit] Netherlands

[edit] Poland

An early Italian humanist who came to Poland in the mid-15th century was Filip Callimachus. Many Italian artists came to Poland with Bona Sforza of Milan, when she married Rex Zygmunt I of Poland in 1518.[80] This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly established universities.[81]The Polish Renaissance lasted from the belatedly 15th to the late 16th century and is widely considered to have been the Golden Historic period of Polish culture. Ruled past the Jagiellon dynasty, the Kingdom of Poland (from 1569 known as thePolish-Lithuanian Republic) actively participated in the broad European Renaissance. The multi-national Polish state experienced a substantial period of cultural growth thank you in part to a century without major wars – aside from conflicts in the sparsely populated eastern and southern borderlands. The Reformation spread peacefully throughout the land (giving rise to the Polish Brethren), while living conditions improved, cities grew, and exports of agricultural products enriched the population, especially the dignity (szlachta) who gained dominance in the new political organisation of Golden Liberty.

[edit] Russia

Renaissance trends from Italian republic and Central Europe influenced Russia in many ways, though this influence was rather limited due to the big distances between Russia and the primary European cultural centers, on one hand, and the strong adherence of Russians to their Orthodox traditions and Byzantine legacy, on the other hand.

Prince Ivan III introduced Renaissance architecture to Russia by inviting a number of architects from Italian republic, who brought new construction techniques and some Renaissance manner elements with them, while in full general post-obit the traditional designs of the Russian architecture. In 1475 the Bolognese architect Aristotele Fioravanti came to rebuild the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow Kremlin, damaged in an earthquake. Fioravanti was given the 12th-century Vladimir Cathedral every bit a model, and produced a design combining traditional Russian mode with a Renaissance sense of spaciousness, proportion and symmetry.

In 1485 Ivan 3 commissioned the edifice of a royal Terem Palace inside the Kremlin, with Aloisio da Milano being the architect of the first 3 floors. Aloisio da Milano, besides as the other Italian architects, also greatly contributed to the structure of the Kremlin walls and towers. The minor banqueting hall of the Russian Tsars, called the Palace of Facets because of its facetted upper story, is the work of two Italians, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario, and shows a more than Italian manner. In 1505, an Italian known in Russia every bit Aleviz Novyi or Aleviz Fryazin arrived in Moscow. He may have been the Venetian sculptor, Alevisio Lamberti da Montagne. He built 12 churches for Ivan 3, including theCathedral of the Archangel, a building remarkable for the successful blending of Russian tradition, Orthodox requirements and Renaissance style. Information technology is believed that the Cathedral of the Metropolitan Peter in Vysokopetrovsky Monastery, another piece of work of Aleviz Novyi, after served as an inspiration for the so chosenoctagon-on-tetragon architectural class in the Moscow Baroque of the late 17th century.

Betwixt the early 16th and the late 17th centuries, withal, an original tradition of stone tented roofarchitecture had been developed in Russia. Information technology was quite unique and different from the contemporary Renaissance architecture elsewhere in Europe, though some researches call that style 'Russian Gothic' and compare it with the European Gothic compages of the before catamenia. The Italians, with their avant-garde engineering science, may have influenced the invention of the stone tented roof (the wooden tents were known in Russian federation and Europe long before). According to one hypothesis, an Italian architect called Petrok Maly may have been an writer of the Rise Church in Kolomenskoye, ane of the primeval and nigh prominent tented roof churches.[82]

By the 17th century the influence of Renaissance painting resulted in Russian icons becoming slightly more realistic, while nonetheless post-obit well-nigh of the old icon painting canons, as seen in the works of Bogdan Saltanov, Simon Ushakov, Gury Nikitin, Karp Zolotaryov and other Russian artists of the era. Gradually the new type of secular portrait painting appeared, calledparsúna (from "persona" – person), which was transitional style between abstruse iconographics and real paintings.

In the mid 16th century Russians adopted printing from Fundamental Europe, with Ivan Fyodorov being the first known Russian printer. In the 17th century printing became widespread, and woodcuts became especially popular. That led to the development of a special form of folk art known as lubok printing, which persisted in Russia well into the 19th century.

A number of technologies of Renaissance catamenia was adopted past Russians from Europe rather early, and perfected subsequently to became a part of strong domestic tradition. By and large these were military technologies, such equally cannon casting adopted at least in the 15th century. The Tsar Cannon, which is the world's largest bombard by caliber, is the masterpiece of Russian cannon making. It was cast in 1586 by Andrey Chokhov, and is notable also past its rich relief ornamentation. Another technology, that according to one hypothesis originally was brought from Europe past Italians, resulted in the evolution of vodka, the national beverage of Russian federation. As early as 1386 the Genoese ambassadors brought the showtimeaqua vitae ("the living h2o") toMoscow and presented information technology to Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy. The Genoese likely got this beverage with the assistance of the alchemists of Provance, who used the Arab-invented distillation apparatus to catechumen grape must into alcohol. A Moscovite monk called Isidore used this engineering to produce the first original Russian vodka c. 1430.[83]

[edit] Historiography

[edit] Conception

The term was first used retrospectively by the Italian creative person and critic Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) in his bookThe Lives of the Artists (published 1550). In the book Vasari was attempting to define what he described every bit a break with the barbarities of gothic art: the arts had fallen into disuse with the collapse of the Roman Empire and only the Tuscan artists, beginning withCimabue (1240–1301) and Giotto (1267–1337) began to reverse this reject in the arts. According to Vasari, antique art was central to the rebirth of Italian art.[84]

However, information technology was not until the 19th century that the French discussionRenaissance achieved popularity in describing the cultural movement that began in the late-13th century. The Renaissance was first defined by French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874), in his 1855 work,Histoire de French republic. For Michelet, the Renaissance was more a evolution in science than in art and civilization. He asserted that it spanned the menstruum from Columbus to Copernicus to Galileo; that is, from the finish of the 15th century to the center of the 17th century.[85]Moreover, Michelet distinguished between what he called, "the bizarre and monstrous" quality of the Middle Ages and the autonomous values that he, as a song Republican, chose to encounter in its graphic symbol.[10] A French nationalist, Michelet as well sought to claim the Renaissance equally a French movement.[10]

The Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897) in hisDie Cultur der Renaissance in Italien (1860), past contrast, defined the Renaissance as the catamenia between Giotto andMichelangelo in Italy, that is, the 14th to mid-16th centuries. He saw in the Renaissance the emergence of the modern spirit of individuality, which had been stifled in the Center Ages.[86]His book was widely read and was influential in the development of the modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance.[87] Even so, Buckhardt has been accused of setting along a linearWhiggish view of history in seeing the Renaissance every bit the origin of the modernistic world.[12]

More recently, historians take been much less keen to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even a coherent cultural movement. Randolph Starn, Historian at the Academy of California Berkeley, stated:

"Rather than a period with definitive beginnings and endings and consistent content in betwixt, the Renaissance can be (and occasionally has been) seen as a motility of practices and ideas to which specific groups and identifiable persons variously responded in dissimilar times and places. It would be in this sense a network of diverse, sometimes converging, sometimes conflicting cultures, not a unmarried, time-spring culture".[12]

[edit] Debates well-nigh progress

There is debate about the extent to which the Renaissance improved on the culture of the Middle Ages. Both Michelet and Burckhardt were slap-up to describe the progress made in the Renaissance towards the mod age. Burckhardt likened the modify to a veil being removed from man's eyes, allowing him to meet clearly.[37]

In the Middle Ages both sides of human consciousness – that which was turned within equally that which was turned without – lay dreaming or half awake beneath a mutual veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues.[88]

—Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italian republic

On the other hand, many historians now indicate out that well-nigh of the negative social factors popularly associated with the medieval flow – poverty, warfare, religious and political persecution, for example – seem to have worsened in this era which saw the ascension of Machiavellian politics, the Wars of Religion, the corrupt Borgia Popes, and the intensified witch-hunts of the 16th century. Many people who lived during the Renaissance did not view it every bit the "golden age" imagined past certain 19th-century authors, only were concerned by these social maladies.[89]Significantly, though, the artists, writers, and patrons involved in the cultural movements in question believed they were living in a new era that was a clean break from the Heart Ages.[63] Some Marxist historians prefer to describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the view that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy were part of a general economic tendency from bullwork towards commercialism, resulting in a bourgeois class with leisure time to devote to the arts.[xc]

Johan Huizinga (1872–1945) best-selling the existence of the Renaissance only questioned whether information technology was a positive change. In his bookThe Waning of the Middle Ages, he argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the High Middle Ages, destroying much that was important.[11] The Latin language, for instance, had evolved profoundly from the classical period and was still a living language used in the church building and elsewhere. The Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw Latin revert to its classical form. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a menstruum of deep economic recession.[91] Meanwhile George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both argued that scientific progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally been supposed.[92] Finally, Joan Kelly argued that the Renaissance led to greater gender dichotomy, lessening the agency women had had during the Middle Ages.[93]

Some historians have begun to consider the wordRenaissance to exist unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambiguously positive rebirth from the supposedly more archaic "Dark Ages" (Middle Ages). Many historians now adopt to use the term "Early Modern" for this menstruum, a more than neutral designation that highlights the menstruum every bit a transitional i between the Middle Ages and the modernistic era.[94] Others such as Roger Osborne accept come to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general, and instead of rebirth of ancient ideas equally a period of great innovation[95]

[edit] Other Renaissances

The termRenaissance has as well been used to define periods exterior of the 15th and 16th centuries. Charles H. Haskins (1870–1937), for instance, fabricated a instance for a Renaissance of the twelfth century.[96] Other historians have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the eighth and 9th centuries, and notwithstanding later for an Ottonian Renaissance in the 10th century.[97] Other periods of cultural rebirth have also been termed "renaissances", such as the Bengal Renaissance, al-Nahda or the Harlem Renaissance.

[edit] See besides

  • Italian Renaissance
  • Weser Renaissance
  • Aureate woodcarving
  • List of Renaissance figures
  • Listing of Renaissance structures
  • Medical Renaissance
  • Age of Enlightenment
  • Scientific Revolution
  • Western culture

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